Language is never static; it evolves, adapts, and reflects the shifting values of the societies that use it. But that doesn’t stop people having strong opinions about ‘proper’ English, and how people should and shouldn’t speak (or write). In this sequence of lessons, you’ll learn about why some people want to uphold traditional rules, and others who prefer to embrace language as it’s used in real contexts. Unfortunately, the way you speak – your accent and choice of words – does have consequences, and we’ll see how easy it is to form perceptions and reinforce hierarchies and stereotypes. Later, we’ll look at a specific driver of language change – technology – and see how texting, social media, and digital communication are transforming the way young people express themselves. You’ll have a chance to debate whether we’re witnessing the decline of language, or the birth of creativity and connection?

Hopefully, you’ll discover that language is not a fixed system, it continuously responds to cultural, social, and technological forces. To start your learning about attitudes towards English and language change, choose a couple of the articles from the list below, and report back on the insights you discover into English itself – and the values of those who use it:

• The Language Wars (Guardian review)
• Like, Get Over It (magazine article)
• Inescapably, You’re Judged By Your Language (article from New Yorker)
• Gr8 Db8 Takes On Linguistic Luddites (Guardian review of David Crystal)
• Outdated Stereotypes About Accents Reinforce the Class Ceiling (article at The Conversation)
• Impact of Accents on Social Mobility (Sutton Trust press release)
• Complaints Reveal Widespread Accent Prejudice (article at The Conversation)
• Thumbspeak (article in New Yorker)
• Obsessed With Emoji (Tom Vanderbilt at Wired)
• Textese May Be the Death of English (Newsweek Article)

Reading Challenge

This is a longer and more challenging text, but spending time on this piece, and discussing it with your teacher, will help you master this topic:

• Politics and the English Language (essay by George Orwell)

Discussion Points

After you’ve got your head around the material in this section, pair up, pick a question, spend five minutes thinking and noting down your thoughts – then discuss your ideas with a friend and report back to the class:

• Do you believe that young people’s use of language is getting worse? Are concerns about language use justified? What are the causes that influence young people’s use of language?
• How important is audience to your use of English? Do you change the way you speak according to who is listening? Can you give examples?
• Are you a descriptivist or prescriptivist? Do you agree entirely with one side or another?

1. Proper English: Who Makes the Rules?

“Language use is the only form of behaviour I can think of where intelligent and highly educated people still defer without question to ancient authorities.”

Deborah Cameron, reviewing The Language Wars by Henry Hitchens

From the first time we step into an English class, we’re told that the rules matter, that they must be followed, that we should know when to use a comma and what it means to employ the subjunctive mood. But do these things really matter? Outside the classroom, what difference does it make if we write “who” instead of “whom” or say “good” instead of “well”? In this section, we’ll discover that in the real world, it does make a difference… at least sometimes. The concept of ‘Proper English’ is deeply tied to attitudes about correctness, authority, and status. Traditionally, prescriptivism has dominated discussions of language standards. Prescriptivists believe there is a ‘right’ way to use English, based on established grammar rules and formal norms. For example, prescriptive attitudes condemn split infinitives (e.g.“to boldly go”) or beginning sentences with words like ‘and’ or ‘but’, even though these structures are widely used and understood. This view often links correctness to education, professionalism, and social prestige. Speaking or writing ‘properly’ becomes a marker of intelligence and respectability.

By contrast, descriptivism argues that language is defined by how people actually use it, not by rigid rules. Descriptivists see English as dynamic and evolving, shaped by real-world communication rather than fixed standards. From this perspective, variations like regional dialects, slang, and even texting are legitimate forms of English because they fulfil their communicative purposes. Rather than labelling these forms as wrong, descriptivism values diversity and adaptability. This tension between prescriptivism vs descriptivism reflects broader social attitudes: prescriptive norms often reinforce power structures by, for example, privileging certain accents and registers (such as Queen’s English) while descriptivism challenges these hierarchies by recognising linguistic change and inclusivity.

Activity: Linguistic Pet Peeves

Prescriptivism focuses on fixed rules and correctness, while descriptivism looks at how language is actually used in real life. But how do these attitudes show up in everyday situations? To find out, play through the Okay or No-Kay presentation (below). You’ll see examples of common linguistic ‘pet peeves’, uses of English people often call out or criticise. For each one, you’ll decide whether you think it’s acceptable or unacceptable. As you make your choices, you’ll discover if your reasoning is prescriptive (rule-based) or descriptive (usage-based). Ready to challenge your own attitudes toward English?

• Okay or No-Kay: Linguistic Pet Peeves (PPT)

2. Language and Cultural Capital

“If you’re a Glaswegian on [television] you’re gonna be violent. If you’re Scouse, you’re gonna be a scumbag. If you’re from Newcastle, you’re gonna be thick. It’s ridiculous how far the stereotypes go on British media.“

Alexander Baratta, University of Manchester, writing in The Conversation

Language is more than a tool for communication; it is a form of social currency. The words we choose, the accents we speak with, and the registers we adopt can signal education, class, and privilege. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu introduced the concept of cultural capital, which refers to non-financial assets such as knowledge, style, and language that grant social advantage. In this context, language becomes a marker of status: certain accents, like Received Pronunciation, carry prestige, while non-standard accents may be unfairly stigmatized. Similarly, vocabulary often reflects cultural capital, shaping how others perceive competence and authority. These dynamics influence access to opportunities and reinforce social hierarchies. In studying language as cultural capital, we uncover the hidden rules that govern social mobility and status in society. Use the resource here to learn about language as cultural capital, and have a go at the activity below to stretch your understanding of this topic:

• Language and Cultural Capital (PPT)

Activity:

Language isn’t just about words – it’s about relationships, context, and social expectations. The way we speak to a close friend often sounds very different from how we speak to a parent, teacher, or employer. These shifts in formality aren’t accidental; they reflect what sociologist Pierre Bourdieu called cultural capital, the social knowledge and communication skills that help us succeed in different environments. Try this role-play activity, in which you’ll explore how language changes across contexts by speaking in everyday situations – but to different types of listener each time:

• Mind Your Language (PDF)

3. Young People and Linguistic Economy

“As far as I know, I am not dyslexic, mentally lazy, or illiterate. But I text.”

David Crystal, The Gr8 Db8

Language is constantly evolving, and young people are often at the forefront of this change. One key principle driving these shifts is linguistic economy: the tendency to simplify and streamline communication. As David Crystal, a renowned linguist and author, notes; language naturally adapts to make expression faster and more efficient, especially in informal contexts. He theorises a seemingly counter-intuitive language phenomenon – the more diverse and complex a society becomes, conversely language change moves towards simplicity. Similarly, John McWhorter, a linguist and commentator on language change (see the TedTalk embedded above) argues that texting and online communication are prime examples: abbreviations like LOL, or dropping punctuation, aren’t signs of decay but innovations that reflect speed, creativity, and social nuance. Real-world examples are many. Consider “u” for “you” or “brb” for “be right back”, shortcuts that save time without losing meaning. On social media, phrases like “idk” (I don’t know) or “smh” (shaking my head) compress entire thoughts into a few letters. Add in emoji replacing words, and these changes show how young people prioritise speed and connection over rigid rules. Part of the explainer embedded here are some puzzles for you to solve: can you decode and encode ‘Textese’ according to the loose rules and conventions of this emerging new dialect of English:

• Textese: Rules Without Rules (PDF)

Activity: The Gr8 Db8

Young people who seem to spend much of their time messaging each other on electronic devices sometimes appear unable or unwilling to write much else. Exam answers using ‘textese’ and reports that examiners find them acceptable have led to outraged headlines in the tabloids. But, do young people text as much as people think? Do adults? Does texting spell the end of literacy? Hold a class debate where two teams argue a motion such as: “This house believes that technology is ruining the English language.” Organise speakers, researchers, elect a chairperson and timekeeper. If you can, stage the debate in front of a live audience who can direct questions to the participants at the end. Appoint a judging panel who will decide who is the winner of The Gr8 Txt Db8!

Body of Work: eL Seed’s calligraffiti

eL Seed, a French-Tunisian artist, is internationally recognised for his distinctive style of calligraffiti – a fusion of Arabic calligraphy and street art. His work explores the tension between language as a visual form and language as a carrier of meaning. By painting Arabic script on massive public surfaces, often in places where many viewers cannot read Arabic, eL Seed deliberately confronts the idea that language can both include and exclude. The words are beautiful, flowing across walls in rhythmic patterns, yet their meaning remains inaccessible to some audiences, and in doing so raises the question: does understanding depend on linguistic knowledge? For eL Seed, the answer is that even if viewers cannot decipher the text, they can still feel its energy and intention. In this way, his work challenges the notion that meaning is locked behind language proficiency. At the same time, his murals carry powerful social and political messages, (such as calls for peace and cultural pride) using Arabic as a symbol of identity.

One of his most famous projects, Perception, made in Cairo in 2016, exemplifies his philosophy. It’s a mural spanning 50 buildings in Manshiyat Nasr, often referred to as the ‘Garbage City’ because it’s home to the Zabbaleen community, who have traditionally made their living by collecting and recycling Cairo’s waste. Despite their crucial role in the city’s waste management, the area and its residents have long faced social stigma and marginalization. eL Seed’s mural forms an image that reveals a quote only when viewed from a specific vantage point: “If someone wants to see the light of the sun, he must wipe his eyes.” This project questioned social stereotypes and invited viewers to reconsider how they perceive the Zabbaleen. Through scale of beauty and language, eL Seed transforms public space into a dialogue about who gets to speak, who gets to understand, and how art can transcend linguistic barriers.

Here is a small booklet collecting together some of eL Seed’s principal works for you to study and annotate; there are plenty more works, information, and images taken from different perspectives on the internet and at eL Seed’s own website. Here are some more links (as well as the links embedded above) to get you started:

Towards Assessment: Individual Oral

Supported by an extract from one non-literary text and one from a literary work, students will offer a prepared response of 10 minutes, followed by 5 minutes of questions by the teacher, to the following prompt: Examine the ways in which the global issue of your choice is presented through the content and form of two of the texts that you have studied. (40 marks)

eL Seed’s calligraffiti would make an interesting choice of text to use in your Individual Oral activity, offering rich material that crosses more than one Field of Inquiry, (although Culture, Community and Identity is an obvious fit). His murals, such as Perception, address stereotypes and preconceptions, critiquing marginalisation while arguing for cross-cultural understanding. His techniques – such as anamorphic design, colour, and allusion – are symbolic, giving you lots of opportunities to explain deeper interpretations. You can use one of these ideas, or develop your own. You should always be mindful of your own ideas and class discussions and follow the direction of your own thoughts, discussions and programme of study when devising your assessment tasks:

Towards Assessment: Higher Level Essay

Students submit an essay on one non-literary text or a collection of non-literary texts by one same author, or a literary text or work studied during the course. The essay must be 1,200-1,500 words in length. (20 marks).

If you are an HL student, you might consider using this text to write your HL Essay. Here are one or two examples of lines of inquiry suitable for this text – but remember to follow your own interests and the direction of your own class discussion to generate your own line of inquiry. It is not appropriate for students to submit responses to an essay question that has been assigned:

• How does eL Seed use calligraffiti to challenge linguistic gatekeeping and cultural hierarchies?

Further Reading:

• How Awkwardly to Avoid Split Infinitives (Sentence First blogpost)
• Double Negatives? (Write With Jean blogpost)
• Never Start a Sentence With ‘And’ (Collegewise webpage)
• Literally Now Also Means Figuratively (KQED article)
• Should You Stop Saying ‘Um’ (CNN article)
• ‘Expresso’ and Other Linguistic Peeves (Montreal Gazette article)
• Language is a Gatekeeper (TedTalk by Camila Uechi)
• Accent Bias Worse Than Thought (LinkedIn article by Ben Schwencke)
• Is America Ruining the English Language? (extract from Language Myths)
• Accent Bias In Britain (homepage)
• Other People’s English Accents Matter (research paper)
• 2b Or Not 2b (article in The Guardian)
• Is Txt Mightier Than The Word (BBC article)
• How We Learned to Speak Emoji (article at The Guardian)
• Examiner’s Warnings (BBC article)
• Received Pronunciation Old and New (by David Crystal)
• Governing English: Prescriptivism, Descriptivism and Change (Kansas University online exhibition)
• Grammar Rules You Can Stop Sticking To (RobWords video explainer)
• Between You and I English is Going to the Dogs (Intelligence Squared video debate)
• Penelope Eckert at Stanford University
• English Grammatical Diversity Project at Yale University
• The Adventure of English: Speaking Proper (documentary series)
• Politics and the English Language (essay by George Orwell)
• The Ever-Whirling Wheel (introduction to Language Change: Progress or Decay by Jean Aitchkinson)
• Definition and Examples of Language Prestige (Thoughtco article)
• Most Trustworthy UK Accents (Country Living news article)
• How The Entertainment World Embraced Yorkshire Accent (Inews report)
• Accent Bias and Discrimination (summary of FleishmanHillard’s research)
• Representation of Class in Contemporary British Media (by Aaron Guthrie)